There's a natural mystic blowing through the air; if you listen carefully now, you will hear…Bob Marley
Reggae is to Jamaica, what Rock n' Roll is to America. It has long been the island's "greatest cultural export" but is reggae in a better place today, than it was when Dancehall, one of its many offshoots was "bubbling on the top 100." Then, artists like Super Cat, Shabba, Shaggy and Worl-A-Girls were being signed by labels like Columbia, Epic and Elektra? To find answers one must trace the path the music traveled and determine–– has it progressed or is it all hype and no substance?
Like Jamaica's motto, Out of Many, One People, many have been responsible for creating and growing this musical genre, music steeped in echoing the sufferings of a people laden with the emotional longings they endure. Urban enclaves like Trench Town and Back O' Wall reflect the existence to which Reggae holds it origins. Today, the music has transcended its impoverished origins as global acceptance has transformed it into many varied styles and sounds, from the new age Jungle and Garage of the U.K. to the Punta of South America. In Japan, fans have made it their own.
From Mento to Ska
Long before reggae, there was mento, considered the earliest musical form to evolve on the island. Mento was played mostly on homemade drums, bamboo fifes and fiddles by troupes that toured the island dancing the quadrille and using this lively music to disseminate the news of the day, expressing sorrows and joys very much the way reggae does today. During the 1930s and 40s, songs like Wheel and Tun Me, The Naughty Flea and Linstead Market were the rage, with their simple phrasing and call and response technique. The dance was pelvic, with head, shoulder and arm movements from the African tradition. However, the spiritual element so evident in "roots rock reggae" was often missing in the risqué, and at times scathing social commentary of Mento, delivered by early pioneers like Lord Flea, Sugar Belly, Slim and Sam and Count Lasher. Like the lewd inferences heard in today's Dancehall, Mento at its core was not intended to be mentally stimulating, but was simply hedonistic.
As the big bands broke up in the late 40s to early 50s, musicians traveled to tourist areas of the north coast or left the island for "greener pastures". Legendary producers Duke Reid and Clement "Coxsone" Dodd emerged as pioneers of the sound system phenomena, providing an escape for the "sufferers" in downtown jam sessions at popular dancehalls like Forrester Hall. There, many would "forget their troubles and dance" to the sounds of The Drifters, The Platters, Nat King Cole, La Verne Baker and many other African American artists who so inspired them.
As patrons yearned for something else, the answer came when homegrown artists such as Laurel Aitkens, Jackie Edwards, Prince Buster and Toots and the Maytals borrowed the style and sound of African American artists. Innovative trombonist, Don Drummond is credited with creating the "blue beat," a Mento inspired interpretation of the American sound that gave birth to Ska, a double-shuffle sound with an emphasis on the second and fourth beats with lyrics as simple as nursery rhymes. Like Mento, Ska had its own dance routines, its infectious movements synonymous with fancy footworks.
Rock Steady to Reggae
As Folks grew weary from its rigors, Ska evolved to a slower, steadier beat, the "bluesy" Rock Steady. Gone were the horns; the piano and guitar gained new importance; the "walking bass" became more flexible, while the basic two – three chord progressions were retained. Like Ska, Rock Steady was strictly for enjoyment, but without the up-tempo, it was more conducive to lyrical compositions. As performers flourished it was Alton Ellis, who carved the template for the Rock Steady sound with classics like Willow Tree, Get Ready Rock Steady, and Girl I've Got A Date during the period of 1965 to 1968. Hopeton Lewis received accolades for his anthemic Sounds and Pressure as did Ken Boothe for the perennial Archebella and a host of others. Toots Hibbert, Jerry Mathias and Raleigh Gordon, celebrated as Toots and the Maytals helped to define the Rock Steady sound with hits like 5446 and Pressure Drop.
Increasingly, music became a vehicle to "wail" about people's suffering as the happy go lucky feel of independence began to wane. "Rudies" defined their struggle with songs like You're Trying To Conquer Me and 007. Concerned about their destiny, and freedom for Africa and oppressed people worldwide, performers began to embrace the hypnotic, polyrhythmic drumming and philosophy of the Rastafarians. Count Ossie, the legendary drummer and Rasta elder is credited with popularizing the powerful drums. This musical styling eventually evolved into Reggae, the sufferer's music, characterized by its three basic components: rhythm (constant polyrhythmic with percussive accompaniments) melody and voice. Reggae's variable tempo gives it the flexibility that makes it compatible with other expressions and musicians the world over, exploit its polyrhythmic core. "It was rare during those days for rock bands not to have a reggae track on their album," emphasizes Terry Wilson, Reggae historian and Host of the seminal Midnight Ravers heard on WBAI in New York.
Roots and Culture
Reggae is an integral part of the Jamaican way of life. Like some type of religious worship, it is embraced wholeheartedly. Though male dominated, it is a gender-less deity born of the anguish of the under-privileged. In the 60's the music gained a big boost when young middle class intellectuals became attracted to its message of black consciousness, and the compelling drum and bass. After the explosive release in 1972 of the film, The Harder They Come, starring Jimmy Cliff, "Reggae proliferated throughout the islands of the Caribbean" cites Wilson. Reggae's potency and universal appeal had fans satiated with enthusiasm.
The 70s was a pivotal decade for reggae with the phenomenal success of Bob Marley and the Wailers. Catch A Fire, released in 1973 on the small English based, Island Records would propel the message and the music of Bob Marley to the four corners of the earth. Peter Tosh and Bunny Wailers departed The Wailers shortly after the release of Burnin' with each achieving success as solo acts. In America, the album Rastaman Vibration was indeed "bubbling on the top 100" as Reggae made great strides into the psyche of the American public in 1976. Groups such as the Mighty Diamonds and Culture and singers like Dennis Brown, Gregory Issacs, and Jacob Miller were all capitalizing on Reggae's eruption. Gaining popularity was the new sound of Dub music, the instrumental version of a popular song in which the engineer manipulates the individual tracks to create sonic expressions of wizardry. Created by the genius of the great audio technician, Osbourne, "King Tubby" Ruddock, Dub placed masterminds like Augustus Pablo and Lee Scratch Perry on the proverbial map. This sub-genre spawned Dub poetry originated by the late Michael Smith, Oku Onura, Linton Kwesi Johnson, Mutabaruka and others.
Dancehall
When the sound system had only one turntable, 'toasters' would entertain the crowd between records, in the style known as toasting, the predecessor to modern day Rap. By the time two-turntables made its way into the dancehall, toasters would rhyme over versions (Dub) about any and everything that occurred in the community. U Roy became famous for the technique but it was "the great Count Machukie" who was the originator. Big Youth, Alcapone, Dillinger, Scotty, and a host of others helped the "dancehall style" to boom throughout the late 70's in to the 80's. General Echo, Eek-A-Mouse and "Yellowman" took it to yet another level when they brought slackness to the fore as singers were relegated to the background. In the mid 80's, singers staged a comeback led by artists like J.C. Lodge, Beres Hammond and Junior Reid, and Black Uhuru's win of the first Reggae Grammy in 1985. However, by the end of the decade, sound systems like Stone Love Movement were the order of the day spreading the hardcore vibe via a "live dance tape."
Dancehall "don" Shabba Ranks won back-to-back Grammies in 1991 and '92. The reggae flavor became ubiquitous. Soundtracks, theme parks––Reggae was the trend. A rush by major labels to sign Reggae acts ensued. Shaggy was "Boombastic" and his re-make of Ken Boothe's The Train Is Coming Baby for the movie, Money Train catapulted his career. Diana King gained international fame especially in Japan and Europe. "Shy Guy" her hit single was the theme for Bad Boys, the buddy cop flick from Will Smith and Martin Lawrence. Inner Circle made Jamaicans proud when their catchy "bad boy/bad boy/what yah gonna do" became the theme for the successful television series, Cops.
Buoyed by a comeback of veteran singers, upstarts Garnett Silk and Luciano recorded tracks that became anthems inside and outside of the dancehall. A certain consciousness swept over the dancehall when the likes of Tony Rebel, Louie Culture and even Capleton and Buju Banton, once revered slackness deejays, began shedding the "bad bwoy" image for their new found faith in Rastafari. Buju Banton's momentous 1995 roots and culture release, Til' Shiloh on the Loose Cannon label established the imminent transformation. Capleton's huge hit, Tour landed him a record deal with Def Jam Records who re-mixed it into a "Hip Hop/Dancehall track. As culture revolutionized the dancehall, singers were "staying their course", but no sooner were artists signed, they were shelved. Shaggy lost his Virgin rights; Beres Hammond was In Control but a minute at Elektra, as were Red Foxx, Shinehead and Terror Fabulous. Super Cat, Diana King and Worl-A-Girls, were all struggling over at Columbia, and Island Records was bought by Polygram, leaving Luciano and Beenie Man in the wind.
The Real Situation
Big deals are now few but currently Jamaican music is enjoying an extended fifteen minutes of fame. "All and all Reggae is in a good place," says D.J. Roy of Irie Jam FM in New York, "the music is definitely out there." However, with Shaggy sing-jaying the theme of the new movie Showtime, and Devonte and Tanto Metro's Give It To Her enjoying heavy rotation on radio, with Jamaican music and culture being infused into diverse aspect of today's pop culture, what positive strides have been made in institution building? Are Reggae fans satisfied by the success of Shaggy or Beenie Man? Has the success taken the music to a better place than Bob Marley and Peter Tosh took it in the early 80's?
Artist Development
According to Trudy DeSouza, executive producer of Caribbean Billboard, the 2001 Tamika Awards winner for Best Cable Program, "Many artists have no sense of the business, have not been developed as artists and retain no real management." Artists and their management "are not stepping up to the plate... they need to think outside the box," she says, pointing out that, though Devonte and Tanto Metro have a huge hit, there is no video, no follow up. According to Jeff Sarge, host of Reggae School Room on New Jersey's WFMU, "These artists have their brethrens, sistrens and baby mothers as their managers, who have no idea about the business of music." Junior Ewart, of Ruff Stuff recording studio in Brooklyn New York, conveyed that "Jamaican artists are the most expensive and difficult artists to work with. They are not willing to put in the work necessary to nurture their careers," he says. "They should study the life of Bob Marley and those who perfected their craft by playing at gigs off the beaten path." "They do not know how to communicate with people, and are not ready to deal with different cultures and mindsets within the mainstream," DeSouza adds. Seminars like Caribbean Music Expo offered workshops about marketing, promoting and artist management but "folks talk the talk, they don't walk the walk" she says.
Marketing
Reggae like other musical forms is suffering at retail. The public's purchasing pattern at mainstream outlets has shown a sharp decrease. Shawn King, director of marketing at V.P. Records, confirms that "units are not moving… we currently have a major hit with Tanto Metro and Devonte. The single Give It To Her is being played at 21 mainstream radio stations, yet we are unable to move a significant amount of units." Small companies like V.P. Records seem to lack adequate knowledgeable staffing who understand the psyche of the grassroots and the mainstream simultaneously. As a result, unable to garner enough sales at retail, they are often forced to abort radio promotion of a hit. Another factor is the booming bootleg business that's beating major labels and independents alike. "Bootleg is here to stay," announces Sincere, an independent street promotions sage in New York. "What labels need to do is beat the bootleggers at their own game by offering premiums," he suggests.
Quality Control
Then there is the issue of quality. With the proliferation of independent producers, the quality of the music has been compromised giving rise to a series of one hit wonders. Mr. Vegas and Zebra come to mind. To make matters worse, stalwart Dancehall icons like Bounty Killa, Beenie Man, Capleton and even Sizzla are constantly "warring" among themselves. At last year's Sumfest festival in Montego Bay, Beenie, Bounty and Merciless provoked a bottle-throwing incident that marred the otherwise peaceful event. Many patrons shy away from such events at all cost. "It's like a crab in the barrel mentality," declares Peter Smith, owner of Kulcha Lion Records in Brooklyn. "They just hate to see each other succeed."
Shammy Grammy
Speaking of success, Terry Wilson suggest that Shaggy's is "a novelty. It's difficult to understand what he is saying." Wilson believes that, "Bob [Marley] will always sell because people can understand and relate to his music. So will the Beatles, the Mighty Sparrow, even Luky Dube and so will Beres [Hammond]." So why then did Hammond, a singer, songwriter and producer whose career spans thirty plus years with three generations hooked on his ballads of social injustices, economic hardships and affairs of the heart, not win the coveted Grammy? Beres confessed that, "People ask me how I feel that I didn't win, but I am glad for the young Marley youth." Jeff Sarge points out that, "Neither talent, fan base nor units sold, has anything to do with the selection process, the Grammy is musical politics…it's not the best album that wins, it's the label who is most connected." This perhaps explaining why it was won by a neophyte.
The story of reggae music on the international stage is a story of spotlights and lost opportunities–– of a longing to belong. No matter how widespread the embrace of the drum and bass, legions of Jamaicans worldwide pine privately at the price being paid for its successful exposure. The consensus seems to be that despite tremendous inroads, reggae lacks the business savvy required for success and needs a bold and urgent move towards full knowledge of the business of music. The mainstream will not respect the art form or those who represent it until they first respect themselves and become organized as a force to be reckoned with. Perhaps as Jeff Sarge believes: "We have a greater expectancy than the reality of it all."
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